This article is going to be discussing all the different types of data that constitute to archaeological evidence. These include written sources and art, the various artifacts such as pottery and metal objects that are found on excavation sites, environmental evidence like soil samples and vegetation, the burial of people, how they were buried and what they were buried with, and all of the various dating techniques that allow archaeologists to date at what time in history the artifacts are from.

One of the most popular and useful scientific dating techniques is radiocarbon dating, although it does have its limitations in accuracy, but this is mostly due to poor samples and bad interpretation, but also because the amounts of carbon in the atmosphere have varied over time, but to avoid this radiocarbon dates are calibrated, although there still is margin for error. Radiocarbon dating works by comparing the weight of C-14, carbon 14 which is an unstable isotope, to amounts of carbon isotopes to work out how much C-14 had decayed, this indicates how long it has been since the decaying began giving archaeologists a time frame. Radiocarbon dating is usually used to date organic materials such as plant remains, charcoal, wood and bones. Radiocarbon dating does not work on cremated bone but does give a reliable date to charred bone.

Potassium-argon dating is mainly used to date rocks hundreds and thousands of years old. Like radiocarbon dating it is based on the principle of radioactive decay.The results of potassium-argon dating are accompanied by an error estimate of how many years the results could be an error by, for example if a rock is dated to be 10000 years old there could be a 3000-year margin for error.

Uranium-Series dating is based on the radioactive decay of isotopes of uranium. It is particular useful for the period of 500,000-50,000 years ago which is outside the time range of radiocarbon dating, so uranium-series dating is the first choice for dating a site which was occupied by early humans. This method is used to date rocks that are rich in calcium carbonate; teeth can also be dated using this dating technique.

Dating techniques are extremely important in archaeology; they put a date on artifacts and settlements and provide information on what period in time these artifacts were made and when the settlements were lived in. It gives archaeologists time periods for certain trends such as Iron and Bronze, for example iron products were made in the Iron Age, which started in the 12th century BC, although it started much later in Europe in the 8th century BC.

Artefacts are one of the main sources of information for archaeology. Artifacts are anything that was man made or modified by man, for example pottery, jewelry, stone items such as flint, metal items and clothing. Artefacts can provide lots of information and answers, however they can also raise just as many new questions although they are crucially important to reconstruct past human activity. Artefacts can tell us how people lived their lives, for example, remains of pottery can provide information regarding the owners diet as food residue could be left behind on the pottery. Pottery would have had many uses, from cooking and storing various items in, it is also very helpful when trying to date a site. Pottery is a fairly common find in many archaeological excavation sites around Europe, mainly because it survives well in almost any environment. It also helps to indicate society, economy and exchange within the culture, for example pottery that is known to not be made in that particular area where it was found, indicates that it was traded and brought to the area.Well-made pottery with a lot of decoration shows craftsmanship and that someone was important enough within the society to have the pottery made for them. Pottery was well used and would have broken easily so the average home would have got through many pots.

Many artifacts would have been made out of various metals. Things like swords, arrowheads, axe heads, and jewelry. They could be made out of metals such as copper, iron, bronze, silver and gold. However what materials where used would depend on the period of time and the resources that were available.

Men and women have always from early man enjoyed decorating themselves with jewelry whether it is feathers, animal bones, stone or made from metals. Jewelry can tell us a lot about the culture it came from and about the people within that culture. The kind of information that jewelry gives us is a sign of wealth, trade and exchange in the area, and what kind of materials and resources were used. It shows what the people in that civilization could afford and what they could have traded with others nearby, it also shows how far certain artifacts could have traveled to reach the place it was found. It can tell us what kind of materials and resources could have been found near by and how those resources were put to use and the skill and craftsmanship within the culture. Decorated jewelry shows great craftsmanship and how talented the people of that time would have been to make such nice jewelry with the tools and methods of production that were available.

Weapons also show and tell us a lot about civilizations. As with jewelry it shows skill and craftsmanship. The materials that the weapons are made off change depending on the time that they were made, like iron and bronze. Various weapons that could have been made out of these materials include swords, axes, knives, arrowheads and spearheads. This kind of information can tell us about conflicts, whether there was battle with others nearby or if they were used for mainly hunting food. Knives could also have been used for butchery, however for evidence of this cut marks need to be evident on the animal bones. Spears and arrows would have been used for hunting animal such as deer and would have been very effective. Swords and axes would have most likely been used in battle situations.

The archaeology of burials gives archaeologists some very useful information and insight about people and the people that buried them and their status within a community. When people died, they were buried with valuable items and possessions, which symbolize that person’s wealth and status within the community. The various items they would have been buried with could include jewelry, weapons, religious items, coins, clothing, and tools. These items could show archaeologists a lot about the people they were buried with, it could show their role within the community for example their job, whether it be farmer or priest. It can show the persons wealth and what kind of things they could afford to make and or trade, and how powerful they were in the society.A person found buried with weapons indicates that they were a warrior of some kind or had something to do with battle. The typical weapons people were buried with are swords, spears and shields, although the only remains of the spear and shield would be the spearhead and the shield boss, as these were the only metal of the weapons. The shield would normally be placed over the head and chest for protection. Clothing found in burials, if well preserved, can show craftsmanship and how well the clothes were made. It also shows what kind of fashion there was and what kind of materials they used to make clothing out of. The religious items can tell archaeologists about the peoples beliefs, what they thought about the afterlife and about gods. The way people were buried reflects what they thought about the afterlife, as the dead would have been buried with the things they would have needed in the afterlife and would have been equipped to aid them. People also might have been buried with religious item such as religious symbols for example the crucifix is a symbol of Christianity. These religious symbols found in graves could show us if the person belonged to a faith or held a certain belief. The excavation of burials gives archaeologists a lot of answers and information and their roles within the communities, but also raises some questions about those people and how people felt towards other people. Excavating the dead can sometimes seem morally wrong and disrespectful, as in some cases in Australia, aborigine artifacts had to be returned into the ground due to the demand from living aborigines that it was disrespectful, but it must be done to find answers and information about the past. All the information gathered from burials is relevant and provides answers about the period of time in question, the time that the person was buried.

A very useful source of information about the environment and how it would have been in the past, which helps archaeologists gather information and evidence on the past’s environment and landscape would be rock and soil samples, and also plant DNA, and seeds. Knowing about the past environment can help archaeologists to understand other things such as what kind of animals could have lived in certain areas and what types of vegetation would have grown and at what time in the year.

Artefacts can help archaeologists find out what happened on the site but soil samples help to date sites and when soil layers formed. As this quotes shows, soils are a very important piece of information on an excavation.Things to consider with soil samples are the color and texture of the soil. Many scientific techniques can be used to identify all of the different chemicals in the soil. This can tell archaeologists whether the land was used for agricultural purposes and any other past activities.

Another useful identification and dating technique are plant remains and seeds. These help to reconstruct past environments, economies, and the origins and spread of agriculture and also the impact of humans on the plant communities. With plant remains archaeologists can explore what plants would have been used for, such as food and medicine, and also how wood was used for carpentry and the woodland management. Pollen is also very useful to archaeologists. The best pollen samples are from peat bogs and lakebeds where biological decay is impeded. In unexcavated areas, samples are taken in long cores, on an archaeological excavation, smaller samples are taken at regular intervals, although, great care must be taken to avoid contamination from the atmosphere or the archaeological tools that are used. Pollen can also be found in animal and human remains and mummies, giving archaeologists an idea of what sort of plants and vegetation people and animals would have eaten and what plants would have been growing at the time. The samples of pollen are studied under a microscope, to identify the pollen grains; this helps to reconstruct the past environment.

Archaeologists not only rely on artifacts, soil samples, and plant remains for information about the past cultures and world, they also use written sources and art. Written sources are very valuable to archaeologists but can be extremely biased. Written sources can tell archaeologists about surrounding landmarks such as statues or noticeable features in the landscape, and can also tell us about what the people thought about religions, details about everyday life and the hierarchy. Although when taking written sources into context it is important to remember that it is only one persons views. Art can show archaeologists a lot about the culture it comes from. It can tell stories if past events from the prospective of the artist. One culture that used art to record events was the Ancient Egyptians. They used art to record Pharaohs and Queens and the way monuments and buildings were built, wars and battles, everyday life, religious rituals and clothes. The Ancient Egyptians not only used wall carvings to display art they also did sculpture and woodcarvings, all of these things depicted people and the way they lived. Art and sculpture is very useful as it shows how things would have looked and worked. This knowledge help to support many theories about how some artifacts would have looked and how they would have worked when they were created. Drawings and other art can also provide information about the diets type of diets people had. It shows what people would have eaten, and how, if needed, it would have been prepared and cooked. It can show how the diets varied, for example, was it mostly a meat diet, or maybe vegetables that they grew themselves, did shellfish play a part in their diets?

Building and structures are also useful sources of information. Whether it is just the remains of building or still standing structures. Ancient buildings are likely o have inscriptions carved into the normal proclaiming who the building was built for, such as a King or Queen, or describing what the buildings purpose was. They are usually decorated with patterns and statues, which also provides information about its origins and purpose. Things like castles or monuments like Stonehenge and the Egyptian pyramids, but these can raise more questions than they answer, as it is still a mystery how the pyramids were built and why Stonehenge was built and what it was used for.

In conclusion, there are many sources that give archaeologists information about the past, past cultures, societies and environments, including what they ate, their religious rituals, hunting and farming, what the climate was like, what people wore and what materials the clothes were made out of, how they made tools and what materials were used, or trade and exchange in the areas. Archaeologists draw their information for a different range of sources, using methods such as, dating techniques, soil samples, pollen analysis, burials, written sources and art, and physical artifacts, which constitute and contribute to archaeological evidence.