Scienceray &#187; Geology

Depending on the context and structure being examined, a photomicrograph is a representation of a person or scene in the form of a print or transparent slide; recorded by a camera on light-sensitive material.

At a basic level, photo-microscopy may be carried out simply by attaching a regular camera to a microscope; therefore, enabling the user to take photographs at reasonably high magnification.

This type of photography is used to look into the structual form of different types of rocks, and by doing this, we are able to see the ratios of minerals present.

What is an Igneous Rock?

Most rocks are aggregates of crystals or grains of one or more minerals. The minerals that make up the structure of the rock are quite small, although they are still able to be identified.

Ever since the beginning of the Earth, rocks have been the eyes and ears of evolution. Their experiences have been solidly held in a tight capsule, only to be later examined by geologists and researchers.

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One of the most fascinating of all rock forms is unquestionably igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are formed by volcanic eruptions from magma. The molten rock rises to the top of the volcano and either flows down the side of the volcano as lava or aggressively burst’s due to bubble formation in the lava.

With the help of the bubbles, the magma volume increases even more, shooting out and over the entire surface of the volcano. The rocks that initially hit the surface and cool are called extrusive, meaning they cool at a faster pace because of their direct contact with weathering elements like rain, air, and snow.

In some cases, the magma will never reach the surface resulting in an intrusive igneous rock. The rocks cool slowly allowing the rock to form crystals that are visible with the naked eye.

For centuries, igneous rocks have been studied because of their ability to share secrets about our planet. They have given scientists, geologists, and researchers the ability to understand volcanic eruptions and when the next eruption will occur. In addition, they make up the majority of Earth’s crust; therefore, they help in understanding our planet and why it differs so much with the entire solar system.

In the larger sense, the Earth’s changes over the years have been widely studied by igneous rocks. While shifts of tectonic plates have formed continents, the remnants left over are igneous rocks.

While all igneous rocks cool from the same magma and form under different conditions, they all display different characteristics of texture, color, mineral composition, and appearance.

Obsidian is one of the easiest igneous rocks to identify because of the color and glossy appearance. The sharp conchoidal fractures create razor like edges much like a piece of metal. Native Indians used obsidian for arrow heads and knives because of the strong structural form. Obsidian is also used in several different types of eye surgeries because of the tissue compatibility.

Gabbro

Gabbro is a fine grained rock that is typically composed of black pyroxene and calcium plagioclase. The striations in Gabbro are easily identified on the elongated crystals. The colors in the plagioclase cause a pale blue iridescent glow making this type of rock highly valued in architecture.

Peridotite

Peridotite is typically made up of olivine and pyroxene which gives it the dark green to dark gray coloring. The crystals in the Peridotite can be of any size depending on the cooling times and the ratios of minerals. Peridotite is not abundant in Earth’s crust; however, it is the most abundant rock beneath the crust in the upper mantle.

Rhyolite

Rhyolite is a fine grained extrusive igneous rock that can be found in many varieties of color and shape. There particular form, which typically is porphyritic, is identifiable by the glassy quartz crystals with the addition of the potassium feldspar phenocrysts. If there are no phenocrysts present, a lighter color sometimes suggests this particular type of igneous rock. However, the simple act of testing the hardness, texture, fractures, and cleavage will lead a researcher to the correct identity.

Andesite

Andesite is typically found at convergent boundaries where volcanos are formed. They are gray in color and possess phenocrysts of white to light gray plagioclase and black hornblende.

Granite

Found at Yosemite National Park

Source (Orbicular granite in Caldera, Chile )

Source (The granite peaks of the Torres del Paine in the Chilean Patagonia)

Granite is quite familiar to many being that it’s typically used to construct monuments, flooring, walls, pillars, and many other structures. Granite makes up the large grouping of intrusive rocks called batholiths, ranging in colors from light pink, dark and light grays to reddish tones. The essential mineral in granite is potassium feldspar, which gives it the luminous and glossy like finish when polished.

Unique forms of granite will have traces of hornblende and biotite, which gives the rock a rich and lavish appearance and a black hue.

Pumice

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Familiar to most as a normal pumice stone, its structure is the result of the frothing of volcanic glass. The color is typically white or gray and the texture is abrasive, which explains its use in homemade spa products for the skin. You can also find pumice is lava soap, which is used my many for a more industrial like cleaning.

Basalt

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Basalt is probably the most identifiable and abundant of all igneous rocks, forming the base of the ocean floor and large land structures. Basalt will have phenocrysts of calcium plagioclase, combined with some smaller olivine crystals measuring 1 mm, recognizable by their greenish hue and glassy sheen.

Bowens Reaction Series

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The study of igneous rocks was summed up by the Bowens reaction series, which explained the sequence of steps the magma takes to become a crystallized form.

In the 20th century, Bowen duplicated the crystallization process in the lab where he paid close attention to the reactions specific to each mineral. He coined the phrase “discontinuous reaction”, which was an experiment in the cooling times of magma and which minerals were present at the end of the process.

Consequently, he also coined the phrase “continuous reaction”, resulting from an experiment using plagioclase feldspars which change in composition as the magma temperature decreases.

To put it simply, Bowen’s series of reactions shows that when magma cools, certain minerals will crystallize more quickly than others. There is a sequence present to the cooling process in which “olivine and plagioclase ranks higher on the list, crystallizing at temperatures of 500° to 600°C.”

The Bowens reaction series is not an exact science being that composition and instruction can influence the outcome. The series was meant to explain the common order of crystallization, while allowing for a certain margin of error.

Out of This World: Naturally Colored Volcanic Lakes

Thu, 16 Jul 2009 14:40:26 +0000

One of the best known geothermal centres in the southern hemisphere is Rotorua, near the town of the same name, on New Zealand’s north island. This is really a fabulous place to visit and there is something very strange and eerie about it. You could almost believe that you were on another planet.

There are natural hot springs and some pools for bathing. The mud reeks of sulphur but is said to have healing properties. The colours are what make this place almost surreal because the water is shades of yellow ranging from pale lemon, buttercup lemon, through to yellow ochre. This is a real wonderland for tourists to visit and a sight that is certain to stay in the mind’s eye.

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Even the town has this thermal activity going on around it and there are huge plumes of steam erupting from the ground in the green parkland areas. Most hotels have natural spas and there is a famous hot pool on Mokoia Island, just off the coast.

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The north island of New Zealand has a chain of dormant volcanoes in the Tongariro National Park, which is south of Rotorua, along the same geological fault line. The last of these volcanoes to have a major eruption was Mount Ruapehu in 1995 and 1996.

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The Whakarewarewa thermal reserve is where visitors can watch the Pohutu geyser which belches steam into the sky for some one hundred feet (thirty metres), every twenty minutes. The power released is awe inspiring.

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Further south along the same line is Waimangu which is famous for its beautiful blue and green lakes which get their colour from a soup made up of hot water and minerals. This lake sits in the crater of an extinct volcano.

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Wai-O-Tapu is in the same area and this has to be the most fabulous of all. The lake steams and ripples its soft yellow, green, and blue colours and gives an awesome mottled effect. The Champagne Pool reaches temperatures of 165 degrees Fahrenheit, or 74 degrees centigrade.

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This area is spectacular and the visitor may even imagine that it has been painted with the expertise of the artist’s brush, as the photographs are revealed, but it is one of nature’s truly natural and fabulous art exhibitions.

10 Impressive Inselberg Formations

Mon, 01 Jun 2009 11:33:05 +0000

Jugurtha’s Table (Tunisia)

Jugurtha’s Table lies 60 km (37 mi) southwest of El Kef, a small city northwest of Tunisia. The stunning rock formation was named after the Libyan King of Numidia (present day Algeria) who fought a mighty battle against the occupying Romans, using the massive flat topped rock as a fortress. The mountain can be seen as far as 50 km (31 mi) away, rising 1200 m (3,937 ft) out of the Tunisia-Algerian border plains. It looks almost perfectly flat as if it was somehow been flattened by man. The inselberg appears barren but when you climb the top you can see Roman ruins, arches and walls, huge Roman cisterns dug deep into the stone to catch rain water and tiny beehive-like house dating from prehistoric times. In spring, its 800,000 sq m surface is covered with wild flowers.

Pilot Mountain (USA)

One of the most distinguished natural features in the state of North Carolina, USA is a 738 m (2,421 ft) high quartzite inselberg called Pilot Mountain. The name came from its original Native American name Jomeoke, meaning “great guide” or “pilot” as the distinctive structure served as a guide to the earliest inhabitants of the region. The Mountain has two distinctive knobs, named Big and Little Pinnacle. The vegetation covered rounded top of the Big Pinnacle, also called “The Knob” (shown here) rises 430 m (1,400 ft) high above the surrounding terrain.

Mount Mulanje (Malawi)

Rising sharply from the surrounding terrain of Chiradzulu Malawi, Mulanje Massif also called Mount Mulanje is a massive inselberg with a maximum summit elevation of 3,002 m. Just like Stone Mountain, Mulanje was formed as a result of the upwelling of magma from the earth’s crust millions of years ago. Its existence was first revealed to the world in 1859 by David Livingstone although archeological exploration reveals evidence of human visits as early as the Stone Age. The rock formation is part of the protected Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve.

Stone Mountain (USA)

Stone Mountain is a 251 m (825 ft) high granite dome inselberg in Georgia, USA. The structure was formed as a result of the gush of magma from within the Earth’s crust. The magma hardened to form granite within the crust 8-16 km (5-10 miles) below the surface. The mountain is also defined as a quartz monzonite rock and is famous not only as a rock formation but also for its north face sculptured artwork, the largest bas-relief in the world, where three figures of the Confederate States of America are carved on the huge rock. Stone Mountain has a base circumference of more than 8 km (5 miles).

Suilven (Scotland)

One of the most distinctive mountain in Scotland is Suilven, a rock formation which is made up of Torridonian sandstone. The structure rises from a wilderness landscape of moorland, bogs and lochans known as Inverpolly. Suilven forms a steep-sided ridge about 2 km high. The dome-shaped western summit of the ridge is the 731m (2399 ft) high Caisteal Liath (Grey Castle). The 723 m high central point is called Meall Meadhonach (Round Middle Hill), and at the eastern end sits Meall Beag (Round Little Hill). The mountain is a favorite site for hiking and climbing.

Mount Monadnock (USA)

Mount Monadnock or Grand Monadnock is known as one of the most frequently climbed mountains in the world. Rising at 965 m (3,165 ft) high, the inselberg is the highest point in Cheshire County, New Hampshire, USA. It’s bare and isolated peak provides expansive views of the surrounding landscape. The mountain’s name is where the American term monadnock originated.

Mount Cheminis (Canada)

Mount Cheminis is a dome shaped inselberg sitting on the Ontario-Quebec border of Canada. When traveling east on the Trans-Canada highway 66, it can be seen rising 500 m (1,640 ft) above sea level looking like a mirage in the distance. The rock was discovered in the 1600’s by French explorers. Legend has it that the inselberg was used as a place of sacrifice by the earliest settlers of the area. Mount Cheminis is sometimes called Mont Chaudron or Sugar-loaf Mountain; it is a remnant of the last ice age.

Enchanted Rock (Texas, USA)

About 15 miles (24 km) north of Fredericksburg, Texas, USA sits Enchanted Rock, a huge pink granite pluton rock formation. The inselberg covers approximately 2.6 sq km (640 acres) and rises 130 m (425 ft) above the surrounding landscape. The structure was formed as the surrounding sedimentary rock was exposed to erosion. It got its name from the early Native American settlers who believe the rock has magical and spiritual powers. Enchanted Rock is a favorite site for hiking and camping in central Texas.

Uluru (Australia)

Uluru or Ayers Rock is not only one of the most renowned inselberg, but is one of the most famous rock formations in the world. The 348 m (1,142 ft) high sandstone sitting in the Northern Territory of Australia is a sacred site to the Aboriginal people of the area. It has many springs, waterholes, rock caves and ancient paintings. It is also famous for appearing to change color as different light strikes at different times of the day and year, with sunset a particularly stunning sight as it briefly glows red. Uluru is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Sugarloaf Mountain (Brazil)

image source image source

Sugarloaf Mountain in Rio de Janiero, Brazil is another world renowned rock formation and favorite tourist destination. The name of the 396 m (1,299 ft) high peak is said to refer to the rock’s resemblance to the traditional shape of concentrated refined loaf sugar. Some people believed that the name was derived from the word Pau-nh-acuaqua (high hill) in the Tupi-Guarani dialect. The prominent inselberg is one of the several granite and quartz monoliths that rise straight from the water’s edge of the Brazilian capital. Sugarloaf looks so familiar, the mere sight of it in a movie is enough to tell that the setting is in Rio.

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Mysterious Underwater Pyramid

Mon, 13 Apr 2009 10:26:02 +0000

In 1986, a diver near the island of Yonaguni Jima, off the southern tip of Japan (around Okinawa) came across some strange structures about 25 metres below sea level.

They appeared to be stepped structures with terraces and ramps.

One of the largest pyramid structures is 600 feet wide and 90 feet high –with five separate levels of stone blocks with what appears to be road surrounding the structure.

The image below appears to be a (sphinx like) stylised lion – although some sources have argued that this photograph may not be genuine.

Tool marks and carvings have been discovered upon the stones (and documented) which indicate that they have were constructed rather than being natural stone structures.

Masaaki Kimura, a marine geologist from Japan’s Ryukyus University, Japan has been studying and mapping the site for over 15 years and believes that the site is over five thousand years old – but was sunk during an earthquake two thousand years ago.

Others have estimated that the structure is far older – including Teruaki Ishii, professor of geology at Tokyo University who determined that the submergence occurred at the end of the last ice age – which was around ten thousand years ago (over twice as old as the pyramids in Egypt) – If this is the case, then our history books would have to be revised to take into account an advanced Eastern culture, more advanced than any early Western culture.

It is interesting to note that a number of tools have been discovered both on land and in the sea around the structures.

Close to the pyramid structure, what is thought to be the carving of a human head has been discovered (several feet tall), along with numerous unknown hieroglyphs

The Japan Times reported the following story to add intrigue to the find

“In Okinawan folk-law, there are tales of traditional Gods , and a land of the Gods called Nirai Kanai, an unknown faraway land from where happiness is brought.”

Controversy

Richard Schoch – Professor of science and mathematics at Boston University does not accept that the site is anything other than a natural rock formation

“I’m not convinced that any of the major features or structures are manmade steps or terraces, but that they’re all natural,”

“It’s basic geology and classic stratigraphy for sandstones, which tend to break along planes and give you these very straight edges, particularly in an area with lots of faults and tectonic activity.”

The photograph below shows what is believed to be a similar natural rock formation on land

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As a consequence of the scientific community’s reluctance to accept the site as a man made structure, the ruins have not been recognised by Japanese officials as a site of cultural importance, worthy of protection or further research.

On 5^th April 1998, a massive earthquake (measured at 7.7 on the Richter scale) hit the area around the pyramids – whether the underwater structures were damage or not is not clear.

Conclusion

Unfortunately, until further studies are carried out on the structure, it will remain a site of speculation and contention.

There are two sides to consider, both have an agenda

Scientists / Historians – reluctant to accept any evidence which alters their current, widely accepted human timeline.
Those who are keen to promote the area as a tourist attraction.

Any further information on this site would be gratefully received.

Further Related Articles

Spectacular Caves From Around the World

Sun, 05 Apr 2009 15:07:22 +0000

Caves have a special attraction for some people they love the thrill of exploring deep under the earth. There is just as much beauty below us as we are privy to on top, conceivably in some ways even more, as caves unquestionably have a mystic to them that exterior sites do not. Here is a compilation of some of the most magnificent caves in the world.

Majlis al Jinn Cave, Oman

Majlis al Jinn Cave is the second major cave on earth. In the Sultanate of Oman in a secluded area of the Selma Plateau you’ll discover this spectacular cave. This is an amazing cave that can be accessed through a fissure in the ground with a rope. The height in the interior of this cave runs from 120 to 150 meters. The cave floor is 300 by 200 meters and to provide you a better perceptive of how huge this cave is, it is gigantic enough that, the largest Egyptian pyramid, the great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt would just about fit inside. The foundation of the pyramid is approximately the same dimension of the chamber floor and the height is very comparable.

Don Davidson discovered this awesome marvel in 1938. He was a geologist that at that point in time was studying water resources in the Sultanate. Approximately ten years later Davidson took an expedition to the Andes where he never returned and it is assumed that he died there. He rented a car and drove it to the trailhead, left a note inside saying what his intentions were and was never seen again.

Waitomo Glowworms Paradise

The Waitomo Cave is located on the North Island of New Zealand. This cave is noted for the Hugh population of glowworms (Arachnocampa luminosa) that call this home. They build a nest out of silk all over the ceilings of the cave and just hang down. To attract prey to its threads the larva glows. This phenomenon makes looking at the ceilings in these caves just like looking at a starry sky at night. When these larvas are real hungry they glow brighter than the ones that have eaten. It is a glorious sight to behold. Insects seem irresistible drawn to them. The blue light is due to a chemical reaction in its tail. This light also solves the problem for cavers that venture into these caves.

Eisriesenwelt Ice Caves

This cave is to be found in the Tennengebirge Mountains near Salzburg in Austria and is the largest ice cave recognized to man. This cave stretches for 40 km but only a fraction of the labyrinth is open to man however, this is a sufficient amount to get an idea of what these caves are actually like. You will be astonished at Mother Nature’s achievement. Ice caves are very diverse from normal caves. The feeling is totally unlike other caves and it’s somewhat like being on a different planet once you cross the threshold into them.

Cave of the Ghost

In Spanish this cave is called “Cueva del Fantasma” which means Cave of the Ghost. It is found in Venezuela. This cave is so vast that two helicopters can fly in it and land next to a spectacular waterfall. The waterfall cascades down one side and forms a small but stunning pond at the foundation. This cave has only been in recent times revealed and researchers also exposed something else that existed there. It was a dendrobatid frog species (Colostethus breweri). The frog was named after its discoverer Charles Brewer-Carias.

Fantastic Cave Pit

The Fantastic Cave pit is found in the United States. It is the deepest known cave pit in the continental USA. This is an extraordinary pit and it is gigantic enough to hold the Washington Monument. It takes approximately eight seconds for a rock to plummet it the ground below. It is beyond doubt an incredible rappel.

Dongzhong Cave

The Dongzhong Cave is found in a Maio village in Ziyun County in southwest China’s Guizhou province. The Dongzhong Cave is not acknowledged for its beauty but it is known for something very extraordinary. Dozens of children attend school in this cave every day. This school was built in a huge aircraft hangar-sized natural cave, it was carved out of the mountain thousands of years ago, by wind, water and seismic shifts. It is a most remarkable place to have a school.

For the adventurer these caves would be the highlight of anyone’s life, to be sure. They are mysterious and mystical and can provide thrills if your into rappelling them or thrills at just seeing there beauty. It is a way to make unforgettable memories for anyone that ventures into either one of these.

The Mysterious Sailing Stones

Wed, 11 Mar 2009 00:17:32 +0000

In an area known as the “Racetrack playa” in Death Valley near the western border of Arizona, there are an amazingly large number of stones, ranging in size from mere pebbles to half ton boulders that regularly travel by themselves and no one has ever been able to explain why!

These huge stones move of their own volition, leaving miles of zig-zagged, curved and straight tracks that have continued to baffle the scientific community for decades. As you can see by the photos, the hardened surface of the landscape is marbled with the trails of water rivulets that would make concealing evidence of outside interference impossible. So the big question is, just how DO these mysterious stones move?

Early studies of the Sailing Stones began when geologists Allen Agnew and Jim McAllister mapped the area and noted the tracks left by the boulders in 1948. After that, these Sailing Stones were forgotten or ignored by scientists for two decades.

Then, in 1968, two scientists from the Institute of Technology in California conducted an ambitious seven year study tracking the stones that involved painstakingly mapping their movements by noting their positions at regular intervals. Although their data and their methods of observation were sound and well documented, their conclusions were found to be faulty.

In their report, the two geologists wrote that “the wind is able to pick up the rocks and start them moving. They push aside the very slippery mud and slide along on the firm surface.” According to Sharp and Carey, surface water would freeze overnight, creating a slippery surface upon which the rocks were propelled.

Admittedly, during the rainy season the water can flood the surface of the “playa” rather quickly, but the volume and the strength of the water current would simply not be enough to provide sufficient propulsion. This video demonstrates how fast the water usually advances across the ground:

As I mentioned earlier, Carey and Sharp maintained that the rocks would sometimes zig-zag across the desert floor in these erratic patterns because of shifting winds. Even at first glance, this theory is flimsy at best.

Yet amazingly, it was widely accepted until 1991, when yet another geologist studied the enigmatic stones and brought his students along to test the validity of the earlier findings.

This time, John Reid from Hampshire College in Amherst, Massachusetts and a group of students converged on the stones en masse, during a time where the weather conditions matched those stated in the 1968 study. Reid and his students slid in the mud quite easily but they attempted as a group to push, shove and/or pull the rocks with ropes. Yet nothing could budge them and despite their valiant efforts, the rocks remained stubbornly immobile.

“The Tristan Effect” is yet another theory that has recently been suggested. The University of Zurich conducted research dealing with the actual physical properties of the rocks themselves. Their theory maintains that the air within the porous interior of the rocks compresses during the sub-zero nights.

The next day, the intense desert heat and sun causes the air inside to once again expand and thus propel the rocks along their paths. However, this writer doubts the validity of the theory.

I highly doubt that anything short of an explosion would cause enough sudden changes in air pressure surrounding the rocks to cause them to move. If that were the case, I would think the rocks would become unstable due to these repeated changes of internal pressure and eventually crumble.