Different types of microscopes are light microscopes, TEMs and SEMs.

TEM- shows the detail inside a cell.

SEM-shows detail of the surface of a cell.

Light- passes light through specimen.

Cells need to be small in order to move enough nutrients through themselves.

Prokaryotes- smaller and simpler, no inner membranes and has a nucleoid region where nucleus should be. Have ribosomes.

Eukaryotes-are larger than prokaryotes and are more complex. These also have a ribosomes, as well as inner membranes.

The parts of a eukaryotic cell are:

1. Nucleus- Control center of the cell, contains the DNA and nucleolus
2. Smooth ER- Synthesizes lipids and stores calcium ions
3. Rough ER- creates more membrane and modifies proteins that are to be sent to other organelles
4. Centriole- Found in centrosomes, have a 9+0 pattern
5. Lysosome- Breaks down food and defective organelles. Also can kill an entire cell.
6. Flagellum- Used for movement. Moves by undulating back and forth.
7. Peroxisome- Destroys peroxide, which is poisonous and is a by product of many cellular processes
8. Microtubule- Provides rigidity and shape to parts of a cell where it may disassemble
9. Intermediate filament- Reinforces cell shape and holds together certain organelles
10. Microfilament- has Actin, holds a cell’s shape and causes the contraction of cells
11. Mitochondria- Powerhouse of the cell, it takes sugars and turns them into ATP
12. Plasma membrane- The cell membrane and bilipid layer, it decides what substances get in and out of a cell
13. Golgi Bodies- Receives, modifies, packages, and transports the proteins sent to it from the rough ER. Also creates lysosomes.
14. Ribosomes- Receives information from RNA and produces proteins which are sent through the rough ER

And in a plant cell:

1. Cell wall- Keeps the plants shape
2. Central vacuole
3. Chloroplasts- Produces food for the plant through the use of the light reaction and the Calvin Cycle

Cilia are multiple appendages on a cell, while flagellum usually have only one or two appendages.

The term 9+2 is shown as:

Plasmodesmata- Holes in between plant cells that allow the transfer of substances.

Tight junctions-

Anchoring junctions-

Gap junctions- Same function as the plasmodesmata.

Energy is the capacity to perform work, kinetic energy is the energy of motion, and potential energy is stored energy that is possible because of location and structure.

Chemical energy is the potential energy of molecules, and is the most important for living organisms.

The laws of thermodynamics:

First: AKA the law of energy conservation, energy can be transferred and transformed, but never created or destroyed.

Second: Energy conversions reduce the order in the universe and increase entropy.

These two laws fit into cells because cells use energy and these laws explain how energy is used, and why cells can’t just recycle energy.

Endergonic- Absorption of energy.

Exergonic- Release of energy.

Energy coupling is the use of energy released from exergonic reactions to power necessary endergonic reactions.

Enzymes: Enzymes are proteins that speed and regulate reactions, as well as lowering the required activation energy. Enzymes need the proper substrate to activate themselves. Molecules known as inhibitors block the proper substrate from fitting into its spot in an enzyme.

Surface proteins: Identifies the cell.

Carrier proteins: Carries substances that cannot pass through the bilipid layer and are too big to fit into the protein channel into the cell.

Protein channels: Allows substances that cannot dissolve through the bilipid layer to get into the cell.

Signal transduction: Receptors activate proteins on the cell membrane, the proteins the send the message to the appropriate molecule in the cell which does a certain job.

Diffusion is the tendency of particles to spread out evenly, concentration gradient is the increase or decrease of the chemical density in an area. Facilitated diffusion is when a carrier protein allows a substance to pas through the membrane in order to obtain equilibrium.

Osmosis is the diffusion of H2O molecules through a selectively permeable membrane.

Hypo-, Hyper-, and Iso- tonic solutions

Hypotonic- A solution with more water and less solute.

Hypertonic- A solution with less water and more solute.

Isotonic- A solution with equal parts water and solute.

Osmoregulation is the ability to control the water balance in an organism.

Plasmolysis is what happens when a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution. The cell membrane is pulled from the cell wall as the plant cell shrivels.

Active transport requires a cell’s energy to move substances across a membrane against its concentration gradient.

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are opposites.

The 3 stages of cellular respiration are glycolysis, Krebs, and the ETC.

In glycolysis,

1. glucose is phosphorylated by ATP, and becomes glucose 1 monophosphate
2. Glucose rearranges itself to make fructose one monophosphate
3. Another ATP phosphorylates the molecule, creating fructose 1,6 diphosphate
4. The molecule breaks in half, producing 2 PGALs
5. NADH phosphorylates the PGALs
6. ADP takes the P from the PGALs, creating ATP
7. ADP takes the remaining P from the PGALs and turns them into pyruvates

The net ATP for this reaction is 2. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm.

Each glucose molecule turns Krebs twice. Krebs occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria and 1ATP, 4 NADH, 3 CO2, and 1 FADH2 are created from each pyruvate. The preparation steps are that a C atom comes off the pyruvate, this produces NADH and Acetyl CoA.

ETC occurs in the cristae of the mitochondria. The cristae allow for thousands of copies of the ETC. As the ETC passes e- down the energy staircase, the concentration gradient of H+ in the intermembrane space builds up, and the concentration gradient drives the diffusion of H+ into ATP synthase, creating ATP. This is called chemiosmosis. The final electron acceptor is oxygen. Each oxygen atom receives 2 electrons and 2 hydrogen ions to create water, which is one of the final products of cellular respiration.

Oxidative- The loss of e- from one substance.

Reduction- The addition of e- from another substance.

NAD+ is reduced at forms NADH.

NADH is formed in the first three cycles of Krebs and has more energy because it enters at the top of the energy staircase; FADH2 has less energy because it enters in the middle of the energy staircase, and is formed in the last step of Krebs.

The movement of electrons makes energy.

Aerobic respiration needs oxygen to work, while anaerobic respiration only needs to do glycolysis and get NAD+.Anaerobic respiration exists to create enough ATP for organisms that cannot get enough oxygen to perform aerobic respiration.

Lipids create energy for cells by either going into G3P in glycolysis as glycerol, or into ATP as Acetyl CoA. Proteins can enter directly into the citric acid cycle as long as the amine group is removed.

Glucose in glycolysis could be used to create sugars which are carbohydrates, or the G3P could turn into glycerol and become a lipid. Acetyl CoA can turn into fatty acids and become lipids as well. Amino acids can come directly from the citric acid cycle, combine with an amine group and turn into a protein

The parts of a plant are:

Vein: transports water to leaf.

Mesophyll: the layer between the two epidermises that holds all the leaf’s chloroplasts.

Stroma: The thick fluid in the chloroplast’s inner membrane, where the sugars are made.

Stomata: Holes on the bottom of a leaf that allow CO2 to enter.

Granum: Stacks of thylakoids.

Thylakoid membrane: Chlorophyll molecules are built into this.

Photosystem II uses red light with wavelength of 680nm. Photosystem I uses red light at 700nm.

Stomata are affected by lack of water, which will close the stoma and prevent CO2 from getting in, and also by the heat, the more heat, more water will be lost, and the stoma will close up.

Photorespiration is when the plant closes its stomata, O2 build up in the plant, and instead of CO2 being added to rubisco, O2 is added. Because photorespiration produces neither sugar nor ATP and can waste 50%of the CO2 made in the carbon cycle, plants that live in hot, dry climates have special adaptations to avoid photorespiration.C4 plants, for example, close their stomata but keep doing photosynthesis by having an enzyme that fixes CO2 even when the CO2 levels in the plant are low. Another example are CAM plants. CAM plants avoid photorespiration by only opening up their stomata at night. A four carbon compound stores the CO2 until the next day, when it will be used in photosynthesis.